-
摘要: 室温钠离子二次电池是锂离子二次电池最有可能的替代品,也被认为是大规模能量存储技术的最有前景的选择之一。金属钠具有超高的理论容量以及低的氧化还原电位,因此被认为是最有前景的高比能钠离子电池的负极材料。然而,钠金属负极的应用仍面临一些挑战性,如钠枝晶的生长、钠金属与电解液之间的副反应、充放电过程中大的体积膨胀等。其中,钠枝晶生长不仅可以产生“死”钠和加速钠金属与电解液之间的副反应,导致容量的快速衰减,而且可能刺穿隔膜,引发电解液燃烧、电池爆炸等严重的安全问题。炭材料家族成员众多,可具有高机械强度、轻质量、高导电性、大比表面积和良好的化学稳定性等特性,近年来被广泛报道用于钠金属负极的集流体的研究。本文综述了最新的碳基集流体材料在钠金属负极上的研究进展,分析了碳基集流体的界面、结构与钠金属负极性能之间的关系,最后并对碳基集流体的未来研究面临的问题进行了展望。Abstract: Room temperature sodium-ion batteries are the most likely alternative to lithium-ion batteries, and are considered one of the most promising candidates for large-scale energy storage. On the anode side, metallic sodium, with an ultra-high theoretical capacity and a low redox potential, has been considered the most promising material for batteries with a high energy density. However, the use of a sodium metal anode has met some challenging problems, such as the growth of sodium dendrites, side reactions between sodium metal and the electrolyte, and large volume changes during charge and discharge. Among them, the growth of sodium dendrites not only produces "dead" sodium and accelerates side reactions, leading to a rapid capacity decay, but the dendrites may also pierce the separators, causing serious safety problems such as fire and battery explosion. Carbon-based materials are a large family, with a high mechanical strength, low density, high conductivity, large specific surface area and good chemical stability. In recent years, they have been widely used as the current collectors for Na metal anodes. This article reviews recent research progress on carbon-based current collector materials for sodium metal anodes, analyzes the relationship between their interface and structure, and the performance of the sodium metal anodes. Finally, problems faced by future research on carbon-based current collectors are discussed.
-
Key words:
- Sodium metal anodes /
- Carbon-based materials /
- Dendrite-free /
- Coulombic efficiency /
- Battery safety
-
图 3 (a) Na金属负极和Na/NSCNT负极上的金属Na沉积/剥离示意图[84]. (b) 在1 mA cm−2、1 mAh cm−2的循环条件下,钠金属在铜箔、铝箔、CNT纸和NSCNT纸上沉积/剥离的库伦效率[84]. (c) Na金属在铜箔衬底上的沉积行为[85]. (d) Na 金属在Of-CNT网络上沉积行为,其中金属Na不仅可以在Of-CNT骨架上生长,还可以填补网络中的空隙,形成无树突的形态. (e) 在1 mA cm−2和1 mAh cm−2下和 (f)在5 mA cm−2和10 mAh cm−2下的Na@Of-CNT、Na@p-CNT和Na@Cu基底上的钠沉积/剥离对应的库伦效率图[85]
Figure 3. (a) Schematic illustration of the metallic Na striping/plating on Na metal and Na/NSCNT anodes[84]. (b) Coulombic efficiencies (CE) of Na plating/stripping on Cu foil, Al foil, CNT paper, and NSCNT paper at 1 mA cm−2 and 1 mAh cm−2[84]. Na stripping behavior on the (c) Cu foil and (d) Of-CNT networks[85]. Na can not only grow on the Of-CNT skeleton, but also fulfill the voids within the network, forming a dendrite-free morphology. The corresponding CE of the Na@Of-CNT, Na@p-CNT, and Na@Cu at (e) 1 mAh cm−2 and 1 mA cm−2 and (f) at 10 mAh cm−2 and 5 mA cm−2, respectively[85]. Reprinted with permission.
图 4 (a) Li/Na金属箔的失效机制[88]. (b) 由同轴CF组成的三维Li/Na-CF骨架示意图. (c) 炭纤维上表面的Li/Na沉积/剥离行为. (d) 纯Na对称电池(橙色)和Na-CF对称电池(黑色)在0.5 mA cm−2和1 mAh cm−2条件下的电压分布图[88]. (e) 氮和氧共掺杂石墨化碳纤维电极和(f) 石墨化碳纤维电极上的Na成核和沉积过程的示意图[89]. (g) GCF电极和(h) DGCF电极在1 mA cm−2、8 mAh cm−2条件下的电压-容量曲线. 在(i) 1 mA cm−2和(j) 2 mA cm−2下GCF电极和DGCF电极上的Na沉积/剥离的库伦效率图[89]
Figure 4. (a) Failure mechanisms of bare Li/Na metal foil [88]. (b) Schematic of the designed 3D Li/Na–CF framework composed of coaxial CFs. (c) Li/Na stripping/plating behavior on the coated carbon fibers. (d) Voltage profiles of bare Na symmetric cells (orange) and Na–CF symmetric cells (black) at 0.5 mA cm−2 and1 mAh cm−2[88]. Schematic illustration of the Na nucleation and plating process on (e) a nitrogen and oxygen co-doped graphitized carbon-fiber electrode and (f) a graphitized carbon-fiber electrode [89]. Voltage-capacity curves of the (g) GCF electrode and (h) DGCF electrode at 1 mA cm−2 and 8 mAh cm−2. CE of Na plating/stripping on the GCF and DGCF electrodes at (i) 1 mA cm−2 and (j) 2 mA cm−2[89]. Reprinted with premission.
图 5 (a) Na@r-GO复合材料制备示意图[93]. (b) Na//Na和Na@r-GO//Na@r-GO对称电池的循环性能图[93]. (c) NaF/SnO2@rGO的制备示意图[94].(d) 在1 mA cm−2和0.5 mAh cm−2时和(e) 在1 mA cm−2和4 mAh cm−2时rGO、SnO2@rGO和NaF/SnO2@rGO的库伦效率,(f) 在0.5 mA cm−2和1 mAh cm−2时,rGO、SnO2@rGO和NaF/SnO2@rGO对称电池Na沉积/剥离循环的电压分布图[94]. (g) Na@rGa复合负极的合成示意图[95],(h) 在5 mA cm−2和1mAh cm−2时Na@rGa复合负极与纯Na金属电极对称电池的电化学性能图[95]
Figure 5. (a) Schematic representation of the preparation of Na@r-GO composites[93]. (b) Cycling of symmetric Na/Na and Na@r-GO/Na@r-GO cells[93]. (c) Schematic diagram of the preparation of NaF/SnO2@rGO[94]. The corresponding CE of rGO, SnO2@rGO, and NaF/SnO2@rGO (d) at 1 mA cm−2 and 0.5 mAh cm−2 and (e) at1 mA cm−2 at 4 mAh cm−2. (f) Voltage profiles of Na plating/stripping in the symmetric cells at 0.5 mA cm−2 and 1 mAh cm−2[94]. (g) Synthetic illustration of Na@rGa composite anode[95]. (h) Electrochemical performances of symmetric cells using Na@rGa composite anode and bare Na metal anode at 5 mA cm−2 and 1.0 mAh cm−2[95]. Reprinted with permission.
图 6 (a) 石墨电极在不同的钠化阶段的示意图及顶部SEM照片[98]. (b) 在2 mA cm−2和2 mAh cm−2条件下,石墨、软碳、硬碳和裸铜电极上金属钠的沉积/剥离的库伦效率. (c) 在电流密度分别为1和5 mA cm−2时,石墨电极上金属钠沉积/剥离的库伦效率[98].(d) Ni粒子和NCG粒子的充电过程示意图[99]。(e) 在190 °C下,Na-NCG电池的能量密度和能量效率[99]
Figure 6. (a) Illustration and SEM top views of graphite electrodes at different sodiated stages[98]. (b) CE of Na deposition/stripping on graphite, soft carbon, hard carbon and bare Cu electrodes at 2 mA cm−2 and 2 mAh cm−2. (c) CE of Na deposition/stripping on graphite at 1 mA cm−2 and 5 mA cm−2[98]. (d) Schematic view of the charging process for nickel (Ni) particles and NCG particles[99]. (e) Energy densities and energy efficiency of Na-NCG cells at 190 °C[99]. Reprinted with permission.
图 7 (a) Li和Na金属/碳毡复合材料的制备过程示意图[100]. (b) 在Cu电极和纳米富碳结构修饰电极上的锂沉积/剥离行为. (c) 在1 mA cm−2电流密度下 和 (d) 在3 mA cm−2电流密度下钠/碳复合材料(绿色)和裸钠电极(橙色)对称电池的循环稳定性[100]. (e) Na/C复合负极合成示意图[104],(f) Na/C复合电极(红色)和纯Na金属电极(蓝色)对称电池的循环稳定性对比图[104]
Figure 7. (a) Schematic showing the fabrication process of the Li and Na metal/carbon composites[100]. (b) Li plating/stripping behavior on a Cu electrode and a nanocrevasse-rich carbon structure-modified electrode. Comparison of the cycling stabilities of the Na/carbon composite (green) and bare Na electrode (orange) symmetrical cells at (c) 1 mA cm−2 and (d) 3 mA cm−2[100]. (e) Schematic of Na/C anode fabrication process[104]. (f) Comparison of the cycling stability of the Na/C composite (red) and bare Na electrode (blue) symmetrical cell[104]. Reprinted with permission.
图 8 (a) Na-wood复合电极的合成示意图[105]. (b) 在1 mA cm−2条件下纯钠和Na-wood电极的对称电池电压-时间图[105]. (c)废弃椰壳制备3D O-CCF材料的示意图[106],(d) 5 mA cm−2和10 mAh cm−2 条件下和(e) 在5 mA cm−2和5 mAh cm−2条件下 3D O-CCF和纯铜电极的库伦效率[106]. (f) Na-HCN电极及Na-Cu电极在1 mA cm−2,1 mAh cm−2条件下的库伦效率[107],(g) Na-HCN电极在3 mA cm−2,3 mAh cm−2条件下的库伦效率[107]
Figure 8. (a) Schematic diagram of the preparation of Na-carbonized wood (Na−wood) composite electrodes[104]. (b) Voltage-time diagram of symmetric cells using Na@rGa composite anode and bare Na metal anode at 5 mA cm−2 and 1 mAh cm−2[104]. (c) Fabrication schematic of 3D O-CCF matrix [106]. (d) The CE of 3D O-CCF and bare Cu d) at 5 mA cm−2 and 5 mAh cm−2 (e) at 5 mA cm−2 and 10 mAh cm−2[106]. (f) CE of Na-HCN electrode and Na-Cu electrode at 1 mA cm−2 for 1 mAh cm−2[107], (g) CE of Na-HCN electrode at 3 mA cm−2 for 3 mAh cm−2[107]. Reprinted with permission.
图 9 (a) C@Sb NPs的合成以及C@Sb@Cu上的钠沉积/剥离行为示意图[73]. (b) 在1 mA cm−2和4 mAh cm−2 和 (c) 在2 mA cm−2和4 mAh cm−2条件下,纯铜和C@Sb@Cu层的钠沉积/剥离的库伦效率[73]. (d) CoNC和NC上的Na沉积示意图[110].(e) 在1 mA cm−2和1 mAh cm−2条件下CoNC和NC电极的库伦效率[110]
Figure 9. (a) Schematic illustration for the synthesis of C@Sb NPs and the sodium plating/stripping on C@Sb@Cu foil[73]. CE of sodium plating/stripping for the cells using bare Cu and C@Sb@Cu foils (b) at 1 mA cm−2 and 4 mAh cm−2and (c) at 2 mA cm−2 and 4 mAh cm−2 [73]. (d) Schematic illustration of Na deposition on CoNC and NC [110]. (e) CE of CoNC and NC at 1 mA cm−2 and 1 mAh cm−2 [110]. Reprinted with permission.
表 1 基于碳基集流体和其他集流体材料的钠金属对称电池性能总结
Table 1. Summary of properties of Na metal-symmetric batteries based on carbon-based collector and other collector materials.
Material and
structure designCurrent density
(mA cm−2)Capacity density
(mAh cm−2)Depth of
dischargeCycle life
(h)Electrolyte C@Ag[108] 1 3 50% 3700 1 mol L−1 NaSO3CF3 in diglyme with 0.1 mol L−1 NaTFSI 1 2 33% 4000 Bi$ \subset $CNs[109] 1 3 50% 1400 1 mol L−1 NaSO3CF3 in diglyme 1 2 33.33% 2800 PVDF@Cu[111] 1 1 25% 1200 1 mol L−1 NaPF6 in diglyme 2 1 25% 900 Sn/C@Cu[112] 1 1 16.7% 4080 1 mol L−1 NaSO3CF3 in diglyme 3 1 50% 850 C@Sb@Cu foil[73] 1 1 25% 2400 1 mol L−1 NaSO3CF3 in diglyme 1 2 33.3% 1200 PNF@Cu[113] 1 2 50% 2100 1 mol L−1 NaPF6 in diglyme 2 2 50% 900 PSN@Cu[114] 1 1 25% 2300 1 2 50% 2500 PB@Cu[115] 1 1 25% 2700 1 2 50% 2500 N- TiNb2O7@Cu[116] 1 3 50% 2400 1 mol L−1 NaPF6 in diglyme -
[1] Thirumalraj B, Hagos T T, Huang C J, et al. Nucleation and growth mechanism of lithium metal electroplating[J]. Journal of the American Chemistry Society,2019,141(46):18612-18623. doi: 10.1021/jacs.9b10195 [2] Liu W Y, Yi C J, Li L P, et al. Designing polymer-in-salt electrolyte and fully infiltrated 3D electrode for integrated solid-state lithium batteries[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition,2021,60(23):12931-12940. doi: 10.1002/anie.202101537 [3] He K Q, Cheng S H S, Hu J Y, et al. In-situ intermolecular interaction in composite polymer electrolyte for ultralong life quasi-solid-state lithium metal batteries[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition,2021,60(21):12116-12123. doi: 10.1002/anie.202103403 [4] Zhao J, Liao L, Shi F F, et al. Surface fluorination of reactive battery anode materials for enhanced stability[J]. Journal of the American Chemistry Society,2017,139(33):11550-11558. doi: 10.1021/jacs.7b05251 [5] Liu S F, Ji X, Yue J, et al. High interfacial-energy interphase promoting safe lithium metal batteries high interfacial-energy interphase promoting safe lithium metal batteries[J]. Journal of the American Chemistry Society,2020,142(5):2438-2447. doi: 10.1021/jacs.9b11750 [6] Gunnarsdottir A B, Amanchukwu C V, Menkin S, et al. Noninvasive in situ NMR study of "Dead lithium" formation and lithium corrosion in full-cell lithium metal batteries[J]. Journal of the American Chemistry Society,2020,142(49):20814-20827. doi: 10.1021/jacs.0c10258 [7] Huang Z J, Choudhury S, Gong H X, et al. A cation-tethered flowable polymeric interface for enabling stable deposition of metallic lithium[J]. Journal of the American Chemistry Society,2020,142(51):21393-21403. doi: 10.1021/jacs.0c09649 [8] Chen X, Bai Y K, Zhao C Z, et al. Lithium bonds in lithium batteries[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition,2020,59(28):11192-11195. doi: 10.1002/anie.201915623 [9] Cheng X Y, Xian F, Hu Z G, et al. Fluorescence probing of active lithium distribution in lithium metal anodes[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition,2019,58(18):5936-5940. doi: 10.1002/anie.201900105 [10] Huang S B, Chen L, Wang T S, et al. Self-propagating enabling high lithium metal utilization ratio composite anodes for lithium metal batteries[J]. Nano Letters,2021,21(1):791-797. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c04546 [11] Zhu M, Wang G, Liu X, et al. Dendrite-free sodium metal anodes enabled by a sodium benzenedithiolate-Rich protection layer[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition,2020,59(16):6596-6600. doi: 10.1002/anie.201916716 [12] Sun H, Zhu G Z, Xu X T, et al. A safe and non-flammable sodium metal battery based on an ionic liquid electrolyte[J]. Nature Communication,2019,10(1):3302. doi: 10.1038/s41467-019-11102-2 [13] Cohn A P, Muralidharan N, Carter R, et al. Anode-free sodium battery through in situ plating of sodium metal[J]. Nano Letters,2017,17(2):1296-1301. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b05174 [14] Zhang X, Hao F, Cao Y J, et al. Dendrite‐free and long‐cycling sodium metal batteries enabled by sodium‐ether cointercalated graphite anode[J]. Advanced Functional Materials,2021,31(15):2009778. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202009778 [15] Xu Y, Wang C L, Matios E, et al. Sodium deposition with a controlled location and orientation for dendrite‐free sodium metal batteries[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2020,10(44):2002308. doi: 10.1002/aenm.202002308 [16] Wang Y S, Yu X Q, Xu S Y, et al. A zero-strain layered metal oxide as the negative electrode for long-life sodium-ion batteries[J]. Nature Communication,2013,4:1-7. [17] Wang P F, You Y, Yin Y X, et al. Layered oxide cathodes for sodium-ion batteries: Phase transition, air stability, and performance[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2018,8(8):1701912. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201701912 [18] Wang C Z, Jin H B, Zhao Y J. Surface potential regulation realizing stable sodium/Na3Zr2Si2PO12 interface for room-temperature sodium metal batteries[J]. Small,2021,17(23):2100974. doi: 10.1002/smll.202100974 [19] Nayak P K, Erickson E M, Schipper F, et al. Review on challenges and recent advances in the electrochemical Performance of high capacity Li- and Mn-Rich cathode materials for Li-ion batteries[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2018,8(8):1702397. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201702397 [20] Yang Z, Li G L, Sun J Y, et al. High performance cathode material based on Na3V2(PO4)2F3 and Na3V2(PO4)3 for sodium-ion batteries[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2020,25:724-730. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2019.09.014 [21] Wu C, Kopold P, Ding Y L, et al. Synthesizing porous NaTi2(PO4)3 nanoparticles embedded in 3D graphene networks for high-rate and long cycle-life sodium electrodes[J]. ACS Nano,2015,9:6610-6618. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.5b02787 [22] Nguyen L H B, Broux T, Camacho P S, et al. Stability in water and electrochemical properties of the Na3V2(PO4)2F3 – Na3(VO)2(PO4)2F solid solution[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2019,20:324-334. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2019.04.010 [23] Yan C X, Zhao A L, Zhong F P, et al. A low-defect and Na-enriched Prussian blue lattice with ultralong cycle life for sodium-ion battery cathode[J]. Electrochimical Acta,2020,332:135533. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2019.135533 [24] Qian J F, Wu C, Cao Y L, et al. Prussian blue cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries and other ion batteries[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2018,8(17):1702619. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201702619 [25] Fan L L, Li X F. Recent advances in effective protection of sodium metal anode[J]. Nano Energy,2018,53:630-642. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.09.017 [26] Matios E, Wang H, Wang C L, et al. Graphene regulated ceramic electrolyte for solid-state sodium metal battery with superior Eelectrochemical stability[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces,2019,11(5):5064-5072. [27] Xiao F P, Wang H K, Yao T H et al. MOF-derived CoS2/N-doped carbon composite to induce short-chain sulfur molecule generation for enhanced sodium-sulfur battery performance[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces,2021,13(15):18010-18020. [28] Wang J Q, Ni Y X, Liu J X, et al. Room-temperature flexible quasi-solid-state rechargeable Na-O2 batteries[J]. ACS Central Science,2020,6(11):1955-1963. doi: 10.1021/acscentsci.0c00849 [29] Thoka S, Tong Z Z, Jena A, et al. High-performance Na–CO2 batteries with ZnCo2O4@CNT as the cathode catalyst[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A,2020,8(45):23974-23982. doi: 10.1039/D0TA09235E [30] Sun Q, Yadegari H, Banis M N, et al. Toward a sodium–“air” battery: Revealing the critical role of humidity[J]. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C,2015,119(24):13433-13441. doi: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b02673 [31] Nichols J E, McCloskey B D. The sudden death phenomena in nonaqueous Na–O2 batteries[J]. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C,2017,121(1):85-96. doi: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b09663 [32] Liu C, Carboni M, Brant W R, et al. On the stability of NaO2 in Na-O2 batteries[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces,2018,10(16):13534-13541. [33] Kang S, Mo Y, Ong S P, et al. Nanoscale stabilization of sodium oxides: Implications for Na-O2 batteries[J]. Nano Letters,2014,14(2):1016-1020. doi: 10.1021/nl404557w [34] Jian Z L, Chen Y, Li F J, et al. High capacity Na-O2 batteries with carbon nanotube paper as binder-free air cathode[J]. Journal of Power Sources,2014,251:466-469. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.11.091 [35] Han S B, Cai C, Yang F, et al. Interrogation of the reaction mechanism in a Na-O2 battery using in situ transmission electron microscopy[J]. ACS Nano,2020,14(3):3669-3677. [36] Das S K, Lau S, Archer L A. Sodium–oxygen batteries: A new class of metal–air batteries[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A,2014,2(32):12623-12629. doi: 10.1039/C4TA02176B [37] Zhou D, Chen Y, Li B H, et al. A stable quasi-solid-state sodium-sulfur battery[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition,2018,57(32):10168-10172. doi: 10.1002/anie.201805008 [38] Ye H L, Ma L, Zhou Y, et al. Amorphous MoS3 as the sulfur-equivalent cathode material for room-temperature Li-S and Na-S batteries[J]. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA,2017,114(50):13091-13096. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1711917114 [39] Wu J X, Liu J P, Lu Z H, et al. Non-flammable electrolyte for dendrite-free sodium-sulfur battery[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2019,23:8-16. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2019.05.045 [40] Wei S Y, Xu S M, Agrawral A, et al. A stable room-temperature sodium-sulfur battery[J]. Nature Communication,2016,7:11722. doi: 10.1038/ncomms11722 [41] Wang J L, Yang J, Nuli Y, et al. Room temperature Na/S batteries with sulfur composite cathode materials[J]. Electrochemistry Communications,2007,9(1):31-34. doi: 10.1016/j.elecom.2006.08.029 [42] Wan H L, Weng W, Han F D, et al. Bio-inspired nanoscaled electronic/ionic conduction networks for room-temperature all-solid-state sodium-sulfur battery[J]. Nano Today,2020,33:100860. doi: 10.1016/j.nantod.2020.100860 [43] Fan L, Ma R F, Yang Y H, et al. Covalent sulfur for advanced room temperature sodium-sulfur batteries[J]. Nano Energy,2016,28:304-310. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.08.056 [44] Wang X C, Zhang X J, Lu Y, et al. Flexible and tailorable Na−CO2 batteries based on an all-solid-state polymer electrolyte[J]. ChemElectroChem,2018,5(23):3628-3632. doi: 10.1002/celc.201801018 [45] Tong Z Z, Wang S B, Fang M H, et al. Na–CO2 battery with NASICON-structured solid-state electrolyte[J]. Nano Energy,2021,85:105972. [46] Hu X F, Li Z F, Zhao Y R, et al. Quasi–solid state rechargeable Na-CO2 batteries with reduced graphene oxide Na anodes[J]. Science Advances,2017,3:1602396. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1602396 [47] Ye H, Wang C Y, Zuo T T, et al. Realizing a highly stable sodium battery with dendrite-free sodium metal composite anodes and O3-type cathodes[J]. Nano Energy,2018,48:369-376. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.03.069 [48] Cui J Y, Wang A X, Li G J, et al. Composite sodium metal anodes for practical applications[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A,2020,8(31):15399-15416. doi: 10.1039/D0TA02469D [49] Brutti S, Navarra M A, Maresca G, et al. Ionic liquid electrolytes for room temperature sodium battery systems[J]. Electrochimical Acta,2019,306:317-326. doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2019.03.139 [50] Sarkar A, Manohar C V, Mitra S. A simple approach to minimize the first cycle irreversible loss of sodium titanate anode towards the development of sodium-ion battery[J]. Nano Energy,2020,70:104520. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.104520 [51] Zhao F, Zhou X F, Deng W, et al. Entrapping lithium deposition in lithiophilic reservoir constructed by vertically aligned ZnO nanosheets for dendrite-free Li metal anodes[J]. Nano Energy,2019,62:55-63. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.04.087 [52] Rakov D A, Chen F F, Ferdousi S A, et al. Engineering high-energy-density sodium battery anodes for improved cycling with superconcentrated ionic-liquid electrolytes[J]. Nature Materials,2020,19(10):1096-1101. doi: 10.1038/s41563-020-0673-0 [53] Hirsh H S, Li Y X, Tan D H S, et al. Sodium‐ion batteries paving the way for grid energy storage[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2020,10(32):2001274. doi: 10.1002/aenm.202001274 [54] Guo Y J, Niu Y B, Wei Z, et al. Insights on electrochemical behaviors of sodium peroxide as a sacrificial cathode additive for boosting energy density of Na-ion battery[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces,2021,13(2):2772-2778. [55] Zhu M, Li L L, Zhang Y J, et al. An in-situ formed stable interface layer for high-performance sodium metal anode in a non-flammable electrolyte[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2021,42:145-153. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2021.07.012 [56] Wang L X, Han W F, Ge C H, et al. Functionalized carboxyl carbon/NaBOB composite as highly conductive electrolyte for sodium ion batteries[J]. Chemistry Select,2018,3(32):9293-9300. [57] Leggesse E G, Wei T Y, Nachimuthu S, et al. Theoretical study of the reductive decomposition of vinylethylene sulfite as an additive in lithium ion battery[J]. Journal of the Chinese Chemical Society,2016,63(6):480-487. doi: 10.1002/jccs.201600076 [58] Matios E, Wang H, Wang C L, et al. Enabling safe sodium metal batteries by solid electrolyte interphase engineering: A Review[J]. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research,2019,58(23):9758-9780. [59] Chen Q W, He H, Hou Z, et al. Building an artificial solid electrolyte interphase with high-uniformity and fast ion diffusion for ultralong-life sodium metal anodes[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A,2020,8(32):16232-16237. doi: 10.1039/D0TA04715E [60] Kumar A, Ghosh A, Roy A, et al. High-energy density room temperature sodium-sulfur battery enabled by sodium polysulfide catholyte and carbon cloth current collector decorated with MnO2 nanoarrays[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2019,20:196-202. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2018.11.031 [61] Fan T E, Xie H F. Sb2S3-rGO for high-performance sodium-ion battery anodes on Al and Cu foil current collector[J]. Journal of Alloys and Compounds,2019,775:549-553. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.10.103 [62] Wang T S, Liu Y C, Lu Y X, et al. Dendrite-free Na metal plating/stripping onto 3D porous Cu hosts[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2018,15:274-281. [63] Wang P, Zhang G, Wei X Y, et al. Bioselective synthesis of a porous carbon collector for high-performance sodium-metal anodes[J]. Journal of the American Chemistry Society,2021,143(9):3280-3283. doi: 10.1021/jacs.0c12098 [64] Wang H, Matios E, Wang C L, et al. Tin nanoparticles embedded in a carbon buffer layer as preferential nucleation sites for stable sodium metal anodes[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A,2019,7(41):23747-23755. doi: 10.1039/C9TA05176G [65] Bai M, Liu Y J, Zhang K R, et al. Alloying-triggered heterogeneous nucleation for the flexible sodium metallic batteries[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2021,38:499-508. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2021.03.033 [66] Zhu J X, Yang D, Yin Z Y, et al. Graphene and graphene-based materials for energy storage applications[J]. Small,2014,10(17):3480-98. doi: 10.1002/smll.201303202 [67] Kamiyama A, Kubota K, Nakano T, et al. High-capacity hard carbon synthesized from macroporous phenolic resin for sodium-ion and potassium-ion battery[J]. ACS Applied Energy Materials,2019,3(1):135-140. [68] Zhang H W, Hu M X, Huang Z H, et al. Sodium-ion capacitors with superior energy-power performance by using carbon-based materials in both electrodes[J]. Progress in Natural Science:Materials International,2020,30(1):13-19. doi: 10.1016/j.pnsc.2020.01.009 [69] Zhang H, Guo H N, Li A Y, et al. High specific surface area porous graphene grids carbon as anode materials for sodium ion batteries[J]. Journal of Energy Chemistry,2019,31:159-166. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2018.06.002 [70] Perveen T, Siddiq M, Shahzad N, et al. Prospects in anode materials for sodium ion batteries - A review[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,2020,119:109549. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2019.109549 [71] Guo R Q, Lv C X, Xu W J, et al. Effect of intrinsic defects of carbon materials on the sodium storage performance[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2020,10(9):1903652. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201903652 [72] Benzigar M R, Talapaneni S N, Joseph S, et al. Recent advances in functionalized micro and mesoporous carbon materials: synthesis and applications[J]. Chemical Society Review,2018,47(8):2680-2721. doi: 10.1039/C7CS00787F [73] Wang G Y, Zhang Y, Guo B K, et al. Core-shell C@Sb nanoparticles as a nucleation layer for high-performance sodium metal anodes[J]. Nano Letters,2020,20(6):4464-4471. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c01257 [74] Li Z J, Li H, Li M, et al. Iminodiacetonitrile induce-synthesis of two-dimensional PdNi/Ni@carbon nanosheets with uniform dispersion and strong interface bonding as an effective bifunctional eletrocatalyst in air-cathode[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2021,42:118-128. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2021.07.027 [75] Li D S, Wang D Y, Rui K, et al. Flexible phosphorus doped carbon nanosheets/nanofibers: Electrospun preparation and enhanced Li-storage properties as free-standing anodes for lithium ion batteries[J]. Journal of Power Sources,2018,384:27-33. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.02.069 [76] Wu S T, Wu H Q, Zou M C, et al. Short-range ordered graphitized-carbon nanotubes with large cavity as high-performance lithium-ion battery anodes[J]. Carbon,2020,158:642-650. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2019.11.036 [77] Park S, Jin H J, Yun Y S. Effects of carbon-based electrode materials for excess sodium metal anode engineered rechargeable sodium batteries[J]. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering,2020,8(48):17697-17706. [78] Yin R L, Guo W Q, Du J S, et al. Heteroatoms doped graphene for catalytic ozonation of sulfamethoxazole by metal-free catalysis: Performances and mechanisms[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal,2017,317:632-639. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2017.01.038 [79] Zhang R Z, Palumbo A, Kim J C, et al. Flexible graphene‐ , graphene‐oxide‐, and carbon‐nanotube‐based supercapacitors and batteries[J]. Annalen der Physik,2019,531(10):1800507. doi: 10.1002/andp.201800507 [80] Vijaya Kumar Saroja A P, Rajamani A, Muthusamy K, et al. Repelling polysulfides using white graphite introduced polymer membrane as a shielding layer in ambient temperature sodium sulfur battery[J]. Advanced Materials Interfaces,2019,6(24):1901497. doi: 10.1002/admi.201901497 [81] An Y L, Fei H F, Zeng G F, et al. Commercial expanded graphite as a low–cost, long-cycling life anode for potassium–ion batteries with conventional carbonate electrolyte[J]. Journal of Power Sources,2018,378:66-72. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.12.033 [82] Yoon H J, Kim N R, Jin H J, et al. Macroporous catalytic carbon nanotemplates for sodium metal anodes[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2018,8(6):1701261. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201701261 [83] Wang B Y, Jiang T T, Hou L J, et al. N-doped carbon tubes with sodiophilic sites for dendrite free sodium metal anode[J]. Solid State Ionics,2021,368:115711. doi: 10.1016/j.ssi.2021.115711 [84] Sun B, Li P, Zhang J Q, et al. Dendrite-free sodium-metal anodes for high-energy sodium-metal batteries[J]. Advanced Materials,2018,30:1801334. doi: 10.1002/adma.201801334 [85] Ye L, Liao M, Zhao T C, et al. A sodiophilic interphase-mediated, dendrite-free anode with ultrahigh specific capacity for sodium-metal batteries[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition,2019,58(47):17054-17060. doi: 10.1002/anie.201910202 [86] Zheng X Y, Li P, Cao Z, et al. Boosting the reversibility of sodium metal anode via heteroatom-doped hollow carbon fibers[J]. Small,2019,15(41):1902688. doi: 10.1002/smll.201902688 [87] Mohanta J, Kim H J, Jeong S M, et al. High-performance quasi-solid-state flexible sodium metal battery: Substrate-free FeS2–C composite fibers cathode and polyimide film-stuck sodium metal anode[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal,2020,391:123510. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2019.123510 [88] Zhang Y, Wang C W, Pastel G, et al. 3D wettable framework for dendrite‐free alkali metal anodes[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2018,8(18):1800635. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201800635 [89] Zheng Z J, Zeng X X, Ye H, et al. Nitrogen and oxygen Co-doped graphitized carbon fibers with sodiophilic-rich sites guide uniform sodium nucleation for ultrahigh-capacity sodium-metal anodes[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces,2018,10(36):30417-30425. [90] Wang H, Wang C L, Matios E, et al. Critical role of ultrathin graphene films with tunable thickness in enabling highly stable sodium metal anodes[J]. Nano Letters,2017,17(11):6808-6815. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b03071 [91] Wang S Y, Liu Y, Lu K, et al. Engineering rGO/MXene hybrid film as an anode host for stable sodium-metal batteries[J]. Energy & Fuels,2021,35(5):4587-4595. [92] Fang Y Y, Xu X, Du Y C, et al. Novel nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide-bonded Sb nanoparticles for improved sodium storage performance[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A,2018,6(24):11244-11251. doi: 10.1039/C8TA02945H [93] Wang A X, Hu X F, Tang H Q, et al. Processable and moldable sodium-metal anodes[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition,2017,56(39):11921-11926. doi: 10.1002/anie.201703937 [94] Jin X, Zhao Y, Shen Z H, et al. Interfacial design principle of sodiophilicity-regulated interlayer deposition in a sandwiched sodium metal anode[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2020,31:221-229. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2020.06.040 [95] Wu F, Zhou J H, Luo R, et al. Reduced graphene oxide aerogel as stable host for dendrite-free sodium metal anode[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2019,22:376-383. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2019.02.015 [96] Chen L, Yan R Y, Oschatz M, et al. Ultrathin 2D graphitic carbon nitride on metal films: Underpotential sodium deposition in adlayers for sodium-ion batteries[J]. Angewandte Chemie International Edition,2020,59(23):9067-9073. doi: 10.1002/anie.202000314 [97] Wen Y, He K, Zhu Y J, et al. Expanded graphite as superior anode for sodium-ion batteries[J]. Nature Communications,2014,5:1-10. [98] Zhang X, Hao F, Cao Y J, et al. Dendrite‐free and long‐cycling sodium metal batteries enabled by sodium‐ether cointercalated graphite anode[J]. Advanced Functional Materials,2021,31(15):1-8. [99] Chang H J, Canfield N L, Jung K, et al. Advanced Na-NiCl2 battery using nickel-coated graphite with core-shell microarchitecture[J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces,2017,9(13):11609-11614. [100] Go W, Kim M H, Park J, et al. Nanocrevasse-rich carbon fibers for stable lithium and sodium metal anodes[J]. Nano Letters,2019,19(3):1504-1511. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04106 [101] Ye S F, Liu F F, Xu R, et al. RuO2 particles anchored on brush-like 3D carbon cloth guide homogenous Li/Na nucleation framework for stable Li/Na anode[J]. Small,2019,15(46):1903725. doi: 10.1002/smll.201903725 [102] Yue X Y, Li X L, Wang W W, et al. Wettable carbon felt framework for high loading Li-metal composite anode[J]. Nano Energy,2019,60:257-266. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.03.057 [103] Sun D, Zhu X B, Luo B, et al. New binder‐free metal phosphide–carbon felt Ccomposite anodes for sodium‐ion battery[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2018,8(26):1801197. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201801197 [104] Chi S S, Qi X G, Hu Y S, et al. 3D flexible carbon felt host for highly stable sodium metal anodes[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2018,8(15):1702764. doi: 10.1002/aenm.201702764 [105] Luo W, Zhang Y, Xu S M, et al. Encapsulation of metallic Na in an electrically conductive host with porous channels as a highly stable Na metal anode[J]. Nano Letters,2017,17(6):3792-3797. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b01138 [106] Li T J, Sun J C, Gao S Z, et al. Superior sodium metal anodes enabled by sodiophilic carbonized coconut framework with 3D tubular structure[J]. Advanced Energy Materials,2020,11(7):2003699. [107] Xie Y Y, Han Z X, Li H X, et al. Uniform nucleation of sodium/lithium in holey carbon nanosheet for stable Na/Li metal anodes[J]. Chemical Engineering Journal,2022,427:130959. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2021.130959 [108] Zhu N H, Mao X G, Wang G Y, et al. Stable sodium metal anodes with a high utilization enabled by an interfacial layer composed of yolk–shell nanoparticles[J]. Journal of Materials Chemistry A,2021,9(22):13200-13208. doi: 10.1039/D1TA01800K [109] Zhang L, Zhu X L, Wang G Y, et al. Bi nanoparticles embedded in 2D carbon nanosheets as an interfacial layer for advanced sodium metal anodes[J]. Small,2021,17(12):2007578. doi: 10.1002/smll.202007578 [110] Xie Y Y, Hu J X, Han Z X, et al. Encapsulating sodium deposition into carbon rhombic dodecahedron guided by sodiophilic sites for dendrite-free Na metal batteries[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2020,30:1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2020.05.008 [111] Hou Z, Wang W H, Yu Y K, et al. Poly(vinylidene difluoride) coating on Cu current collector for high-performance Na metal anode[J]. Energy Storage Materials,2020,24:588-593. doi: 10.1016/j.ensm.2019.06.026 [112] Wang G Y, Yu F F, Zhang Y, et al. 2D Sn/C freestanding frameworks as a robust nucleation layer for highly stable sodium metal anodes with a high utilization[J]. Nano Energy,2021:79. [113] Hou Z, Wang W H, Chen Q W, et al. Hybrid protective layer for stable sodium metal anodes at high utilization [J]. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 2019, 11 (41): 37693-37700. [114] Chen Q W, Hou Z, Sun Z Z, et al. Polymer–inorganic composite protective layer for stable Na metal anodes[J]. ACS Applied Energy Materials,2020,3(3):2900-2906. doi: 10.1021/acsaem.9b02508 [115] Zhang J L, Wang S, Wang W H, et al. Stabilizing sodium metal anode through facile construction of organic-metal interface[J]. Journal of Energy Chemistry,2022,66:133-139. doi: 10.1016/j.jechem.2021.07.022 [116] Huang Z Y, Li Z, Zhu M, et al. Highly stable lithium/sodium metal batteries with high utilization enabled by a holey two-dimensional N-doped TiNb2O7 host[J]. Nano Letters,2021,24:10453-10461.