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摘要: 在最近的几十年中，超级电容器（SC）已在电化学能量存储设备中获得了更为重要的地位。SC为使用寿命长的能量存储设备提供了可观的功率密度和令人满意的能量密度，适用于多种应用。因此，这些装置的进一步发展依赖于提供合适，低成本，环境友好和丰富的材料作为SC的电极活性材料。在用于SC的电极材料中，活性炭表现出优异的性能。它们具有优异的电化学效率，高比表面积，高吸附性，可调节的表面化学性质，快速的离子/电子传输，低成本和丰富的特性，使其成为SC电极的最佳材料。如果从生物质前驱体制备活性炭，则可以协同增强这些优势。由于生物质为可再生来源，低成本，便捷的加工过程以及对环境的友好性，研究者们将注意力集中在生物质上。在本文中，试图全面了解作为电化学储能装置的SC的基本原理。然后，对各种来源的生物质进行分类和分析。最后，讨论了这些生物质前驱体作为SCs电极材料的应用和活化技术。Abstract: Electrochemical capacitors, also called supercapacitors (SCs), have been gaining a more significant position as electrochemical energy storage devices in recent years. They are energy storage devices with a considerable power density, a satisfactory energy density and a long-life cycle, suitable for a large number of applications. The further development of these devices relies on providing suitable, low-cost, environmentally friendly, and abundant materials for use as the active materials in the electrodes. Among the current materials used, activated carbons have a superior performance. Their excellent electrochemical performance, high specific surface area, high adsorption, tunable surface chemistry, fast ion/electron transport, abundant functional moieties, low cost, and abundance have made them promising candidates as SC electrodes. These advantages can be enhanced if the activated carbons are prepared from biomass precursors. Recently, scientists have focused on biomass because it is abundant and renewable, low cost, simply processed, and environmentally friendly. The fundamentals of SCs as an electrochemical energy storage device are discussed and biomass from various sources is categorized and introduced. Finally, the activation techniques for these biomass precursors and their use as electrode materials for SCs are discussed.
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Key words:
- Supercapacitor /
- Electrode /
- Porous carbon /
- Biomass /
- Activation
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Figure 1. Specific power and energy capabilities of electrochemical energy storage devices.
Figure 3. Schematic illustrations of different hybridization approaches of supercapacitor and battery electrodes and materials.
Figure 4. (a) Schematic illustration of scalable synthesis of porous carbon materials, (b) and (c) SEM images of SBC-600, (d) and (e) TEM images of SBC-600[85]. Reproduced with permission.
Figure 5. Photographic and schematic illustration of some biomass sources and their conversion to biomass carbons and biofuel.
Figure 6. (a) Schematic of activated carbon production process from tea-waste, (b) XRD patterns of the derived activated carbons, (c) the C 1s XPS spectra of an activated carbon, (d) GCD curves of the pyrolyzed and KOH activated carbon at a constant current density of 1 A g−1, in a 2 mol L−1 KOH aqueous electrolyte[146]. Reproduced with permission.
Figure 7. (a) XRD patterns of activated carbons prepared from newspaper recycled waste (1) RF gel and (2) WP carbon, (b) Nyquist plot of activated carbons, (c) CV profiles of activated carbons obtained at 10 mV s−1 and (d) long cycle-life of the activated carbons[162]. Reproduced with permission.
Figure 8. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of functional carbons from seaweed, (b) Raman spectrum of TC-900, (c) CV profiles of TC-700 at 10–50 mV s−1 and (d) Ragone plots of the assembled SCs in 1 mol L−1 H2SO4 aqueous electrolyte[182]. Reproduced with permission.
Figure 9. (a) N2 isothermal adsorption/desorption isotherms on the ACs, (b) DFT pore size distribution curves of the ACs and (c) cumulative pore volumes of the ACs[191]. Reproduced with permission.
Figure 10. Electrochemical behavior of the SPAC electrodes in a three-electrode system: (a) CV tests were done at a scan rate of 50 mV s−1, (b) GCD profiles at a current density of 1 A g−1, (c) specific capacitances retention at varied current densities, (d) Nyquist plots[201]. Reproduced with permission.
Figure 11. Schematic illustration of temperature gradient and direction of heat transfer (Left) microwave heating and (Right) conventional heating (red-high temperature, blue-low temperature).
Table 1. Commercial SCs and their specifications produced by multiple manufacturers.
Manufacturer V C (F) ESR (mΩ) W h kg−1 W kg−1 Refs. Maxwell 2.7 2800 0.48 4.45 8000 [31] Apowercap 2.7 590 0.9 5 23275 [31] CSRCAP 2.7 9500 0.2 7.15 6780 [32] Nesscap 2.7 1800 0.55 3.6 8674 [31] Nesscap 2.7 5085 0.24 4.3 8532 [31] EVerCAP 2.5 6000 2.2 0.6 2200 [33] EVerCAP 2.5 2600 1.3 3 1300 [34] Asahi Glass (PC) 2.7 1375 2.5 4.9 3471 [31] Skeleton 2.85 3200 0.09 6.8 42000 [35] Panasonic (PC) 2.5 1200 1 2.3 4596 [31] Samwha 2.7 3000 1 7.02 4200 [36] LS Cable 2.8 3200 0.25 3.7 12400 [31] BatScap 2.7 1680 0.2 4.2 18225 [31] Vishay 3 60 17 3.7 8000 [37] Power Sys (PC) 2.7 1350 1.5 4.9 5785 [31] 
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Table 2. Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur contents in biomass obtained from different sources.
Biomass groups Biomass name Basis C O H N S Refs. Woody biomass Wood residue - 51.4 41.9 6.1 0.5 0.08 [97] Willow - 49.8 43.4 6.1 0.6 0.06 [98] Olive tree wood Dry 48.2 44.2 5.3 0.7 0.03 [99] Citrus tree wood Dry 47.0 43.2 6.0 1.0 0.08 Spruce bark - 52.3 41.2 6.1 0.3 0.1 Birch white - 57.0 33.8 6.7 0.3 0.0 [100] Elm bark - 46.9 39.1 5.3 0.6 0.0 Oak wood Dry 59.5 41.3 5.7 0.2 - [101] Spruce wood Dry 51.9 40.9 6.1 0.3 - Wood chips Dry 48.1 45.7 5.9 0.08 - Canyon live oak Dry 47.8 45.7 5.8 0.07 0.01 Poplar bark - 53.6 39.3 6.7 0.3 0.1 [100] Saw dust - 32.1 28.2 3.9 0.3 0.01 [102] Maple bark - 52.0 41.3 6.2 0.4 0.11 [100] Agricultural biomass Alfalfa straw - 49.9 40.8 6.3 2.8 0.21 [97] Arundo grass - 45.7 42.6 6.1 - 0.27 [103] Red canary grass - 44.9 39.6 5.7 - 0.2 Lucerne - 46.7 35.6 5.9 - 0.25 Rice straw Dry 49.4 42.1 6.9 1.4 0.26 [104] Wheat straw Dry 47.0 41.4 10.8 0.6 0.24 Oat straw - 48.8 44.6 6.0 0.5 0.08 [105] Coconut shell Dry 51.2 43.1 5.6 - 0.10 [106] Walnut shell Dry 53.6 35.5 6.6 1.5 - [107] Cotton husk Dry 44.6 39.4 5.5 0.2 0.14 [108] Rice straw - 50.1 43.0 5.7 1.0 0.16 [109] Sunflower husk Dry 52.9 35.9 6.6 1.4 0.15 [110] Mustard husk Dry 46.1 44.7 9.2 0.4 0.20 [106] Switch grass - 39.7 31.2 5.0 0.7 0.16 [102] Animal and human waste biomass Tea waste Dry 48.0 44.0 5.5 0.5 0.06 [111] Meat bone meal - 57.3 20.8 8.0 12.2 1.69 [112] Chicken litter - 60.5 25.3 6.8 6.2 1.20 Poultry manure and feather - 38.7 31.0 5.7 9.6 0.70 [113] Food waste - 56.7 23.6 8.8 4.0 0.19 [114] Industrial waste biomass Municipal solid waste - 36.4 10.1 5.0 1.4 0.83 [114] Sewage sludge Dry 52.0 32.1 6.3 6.3 3.10 [106] Furniture waste - 51.8 41.8 6.1 0.3 0.04 [97] Poultry sludge - 48.2 27.0 7.6 8.0 0.40 [113] Demolition wood - 51.7 40.7 6.4 1.1 0.09 [102] Paper waste - 31.0 34.0 4.7 0.4 0.03 [115] Marine macroalgae - 43.2 45.8 6.2 2.2 2.6 [116] Nannochloropsis oceanica - 50.0 34.5 7.5 7.5 0.47 [117]
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Table 3. Biomass precursors from forest crops and residues chosen for the preparation of electrode materials in capacitors.
Biomass materials Activating agents Electrolytes BET surface area (m2 g−1) Specific capacitance (F g−1) Refs. Rubber wood H3PO4 or NaOH 1 M H2SO4 693 129 [123] Bamboo Steam 1 M Et4NBF4 445–1025 5-60 [119] KOH 30 wt.% H2SO4 1413 15-65 [120] Fire Wood Steam 1 M NaNO3 1016 89 [124] 1 M HNO3 120 0.5 M H2SO4 96 Wood tar Biological template + KOH 6 M KOH 2489.62 338.5 [125] Fire Wood KOH 1 M NaNO3 2821 165 [121, 126] KOH + CO2 1 M H2SO4 197 Willow Wood KOH 6 M KOH 2800 394 [127] Metaplexis japonica KOH 6 M KOH 1394 256.5 [128] Note: M- mol L−1
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Table 4. The proportions of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin (Lignocellulosic constituents) of some agricultural wastes and residuals.
Lignocellulosic materials Hemicellulose
(%)Cellulose
(%)Lignin
(%)Refs. Wheat straw 20-30 30-45 8-15 [131, 132] Banana waste 14.8 13.2 14 [130] Sugarcane bagasse 27-32 32-44 19-24 Corn straw 21.3 42.6 8.2 [131] Cocoa pod husks 37 35.4 14.7 [133] Bagasse 21.7 49.2 20.1 [134] Cotton stalks 17.4 48.8 23.3 [134] Palm kernel shell 22.7 20.8 50.7 [135] Oil palm fibre 22-70 42-50 14-25 [136] Rice straw 19-27 32-47 5-24 [137, 138] Cassava peels 23.9 37.9 7.5 [133] Pnewood 23.6 38.8 20.4 [139] Kola nut pods 40.41±0.11 38.72±0.17 21.29±0.27 [140] Sweet sorghum 27 45 21 [141] Bamboo 15-26 26-43 21-31 [130]
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Table 5. Specific capacitances of agriculture-derived porous carbons reported in literature.
Material Activating method SBET(m2 g−1) Specific capacitance (F g−1) Electrolyte Cell configuration Ref. Onion KOH 1914.9 205.7 6 M KOH 2E [127] Sugarcane bagasse MW-ZnCl2 1416 138 1 M EMImBF4 2E [151] Potato waste residue ZnCl2 1052 255 2 M KOH 3E [152] Peanut shell MW-ZnCl2 1552 199 1 M Et4NBF4/PC 2E [145] Cornstalk Air 1588 407 1 M H2SO4 3E [153] Jujube KOH 829 499 1 M H2SO4 3E [154] Oil palm EFB KOH+CO2 1704 149 1 M H2SO4 2E [95] Waste coffee beans ZnCl2 1019 368 1 M H2SO4 3E [155] Peanut meal ZnCl2 and Mg(NO3)2·6H2O 2090 525 1 M H2SO4 2E [156] ZnCl2 1021 100 TEABF4/AN 3E [157] Coffee endocarp CO2 1038 167 1 M H2SO4 3E [144] Soybean 6 M KOH 1749 243.2 6 M KOH 3E [70] KOH 361 69 1 M H2SO4 3E DDGS KOH 2959 260 6 M KOH 2E [158] Sunflower seed shell KOH 1162 244 30 wt% KOH 2E [143] CO2+KOH 2509 311 30 wt% KOH 2E Rice straw KOH 1007 332 1 M H2SO4 3E [159] Camellia oleifera shell ZnCl2 1935 374 1 M H2SO4 3E [94] 1935 266 6 M KOH 3E Corn grains KOH 3199 257 6 M KOH 2E [160] Argan seed shells KOH 2062 355 1 M H2SO4 3E [161] Apricot shell NaOH 2335 339 6 M NaOH 2E [93] Note: M- mol L−1
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Table 6. Different biomass from industrial wastes used as precursors of carbons in SCs and their maximum specific capacitances.
Biomass material Activating agent Electrolyte BET Surface area (m2 g−1) Specific capacitance (F g−1) Refs. Human hair KOH 6 M KOH 1306 340 [163] Sugar cane bagasse ZnCl2 1 M H2SO4 1788 300 [164] Waste newspaper Pyrolysis (unactivated) 0.1 M H2SO4 459 300 [165] Shrimp shells Sonication 6 M KOH 1946 322 [166] Recycled waste paper KOH 6 M KOH 416 180 [162] Waste paper HNO3 2 M KOH 463 232 [167] Rubberwood sawdust CO2 1 M H2SO4 683 33 [168] Cow dung KOH 1 M Et4NBF4 2000 124 [169] Sugarcane bagasse ZnCl2 1 M H2SO4 1788 300 [164] Waste tea leaves KOH 2 M KOH 2841 330 [146] Tobacco rods KOH 6 M KOH 1994 286.6 [170] Apple pulp steam 2 M H2SO4 1200 109-187 [171] Note: M- mol L−1
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Table 7. Different biomass from domestic wastes used as precursors of electrode materials in capacitors.
Biomass material Activating agent Electrolyte BET Surface area
(m2 g−1)Specific capacitance
(F g−1)Refs. Palm kernel shell and egg shell CaO 1 M Na2SO4 776.4 222 [172] Coconut shells Self-activation 1 M H2SO4 1194.4 258 [173] Waste coffee ground ZnCl2 1 M MeEt3NBF4/AN 940-1021 100 [155, 157] 1 M H2SO4 368 Coconut Shell/melamine Precursors KOH 7 M KOH 3000 368 [174] Cassava peel KOH + CO2, followed by surface modification with 0.5 M H2SO4 1352 153 [91] H2SO4 1336 210 HNO3 1186 264 H2O2 1276 240 Eggshell Pyrolysis (unactivated) 1 M H2SO4 221 284 [175] 1 M KOH 297 Used tea dust waste H3BO3 3 M KOH 934 89 [176] Note: M- mol L−1
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