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摘要: 随着柔性可穿戴电子市场的快速发展，柔性电化学储能技术取得了令人瞩目的进步。尽管如此，开发低价、安全、高性能的柔性电极依然面临着挑战。在过去的几年里，钾基电化学能量储存体系凭借钾资源的成本优势和易于获得性，而引起广泛的关注。炭材料由于其轻质、无毒、丰富等优点而被用作柔性能量储存器件的电极材料或基质材料。本文总结了炭材料（如，碳纳米纤维、碳纳米管、石墨烯）作为柔性电化学钾储存器件（包括钾离子电池、钾离子混合电容、钾-硫/硒电池）的研究进展。同时，概述了碳基柔性电极的合成策略以及已取得的电化学性能。最后，讨论了该领域未来发展面临的挑战并给出了展望。Abstract: With the rapid growth of the flexible and wearable electronics market, there have been big advances in flexible electrochemical energy storage technologies. Developing flexible electrodes with a low cost, superior safety, and high performance remains a great challenge. In recent years, potassium-based electrochemical energy storage devices have received much attention by virtue of their cost competitiveness and the availability of potassium resources. Carbon materials have been widely used as electrode materials or substrates for flexible energy storage devices due to their excellent properties, such as low weight, non-toxicity and abundance. Here, we summarize the recent advances in carbon materials (e.g. carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, and graphene) for use in flexible electrochemical potassium storage devices, including potassium-ion batteries, potassium-ion hybrid capacitors, and K-S/Se batteries. Strategies for the synthesis of carbon-based flexible electrodes and their reported electrochemical performance are outlined. Finally, the challenges of future developments in this field are discussed.
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Figure 3. (a) SEM images of prepared MCCFs with PMMA to PAN ratios of (1) 0, (2) 1, (3) 2, (4) 3. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2019, Wiley)[50]. (b) TEM image of necklace-like N-doped hollow carbon. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2019, The Royal Society of Chemistry)[51]. (c) Demonstration of the flexibility of SnS2@C-2 nanofibers. (d) Demonstrations by lighting LEDs at different mechanical states. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2021, The Royal Society of Chemistry)[26]. (e) Schematic illustration of the preparation of v-MoSSe@CM. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2019, Wiley)[37]. (f) Prolonged cycling performance of u-Sb@CNFs, Sb@s-CNFs, and MCNFs at 1 A g−1. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2020, Elsevier)[56].
Figure 4. (a) Cycling stability at a current density of 20 mA g−1 of the cable-shaped PIB and photographs of a red LED powered by the cable-shaped PIB at various bending angles. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2021, The Royal Society of Chemistry)[61]. (b) Schematic illustration of the preparation of NCNF@CS. (c) Optical images of flexibility test using NCNF@CS-6 h. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2018, Wiley)[43]. (d) (1−3) SEM images of 3DG/FeP. (e) Flexible 3DG/FeP film electrodes. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2020, The Royal Society of Chemistry)[67]. (f) Schematic illustration of the fabrication of the relatively dense BiNS/rGO mambrane. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2020, Springer-Verlag)[68].
Figure 5. (a) SEM image of N, P-VG@CC and picture of a neon sign and a watch powered by the KPB//N, P-VG@CC full cell. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2019, Wiley)[13]. (b) The schematic illustration of fabrication process of NOC@GF sample. (c) Long-term cycling stability and CE at 1 A g−1 of NOC@GF. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2020, Elsevier)[69]. (d) Schematic image for synthesizing CSNS/NCF products. (e) Photographs of flexibility test using CSNS/NCF-160. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2020, Elsevier)[45].
Figure 6. (a) Fabrication process for rGO and rGO/ CNT hybrid papers and typical digital photographs of the papers. (b) Rate capability and (c) cycling performance of rGO and rGO/CNT hybrid papers. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2020, Elsevier)[23]. (d) Schematic illustration for the synthesis of CNT/SNCF, CNT/NCF, SNCF, and NCF composites. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society)[72]. (e) Schematic illustration of the fabrication of G-PCNFs. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2021, The Royal Society of Chemistry)[73].
Figure 7. (a) Schematic diagram for the preparation of PN-HPCNF. (b) Long-term cycle performance tests of the PIHC. Inset: Photograph of LED arrays and miniature windmill powered by APN-HPCNF//PN-HPCNF PIHCs. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2020, The Royal Society of Chemistry)[97]. (c) Digital photo of the LED light powered by a curved α-NiS-NSCN//CHCF full PIHC. (d) Cycling performance of the flexible PIHC cell in flat and diverse bending states. (e) Cycling performance of the flexible PIHC cell at different temperatures from 25 to −20 °C. (f) Long-term cycling properties (at 1 A g−1) of the flexible PIHC device at −20 °C. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2022, The Royal Society of Chemistry)[98]. (g) Demonstrations of tissue and the HCMB paper at different bending states. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2022, The Royal Society of Chemistry)[15].
Figure 8. (a) Formation mechanism of the MMCFs filled with Se molecules. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2021, Elsevier)[111]. (b) Synthesis procedure of the Se@NOPC-CNT film electrode. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2018, Wiley)[109]. (c) Synthesis procedure of the ACF@S electrode. (Reprinted with permission, Copyright 2020, Elsevier)[48].
Li K Atomic number 3 19 Atomic mass (g mol−1) 6.94 39.10 Melting point (°C) 180.5 63.5 Abundance in earth’s crust (×10−6) 20 17000 Distribution Mainly in Latin America Many countries Alloying reactions with aluminum Yes No Price of carbonate (US $ ton−1) 6500 1000 E0 versus SHE (V) −3.04 −2.93 Ionic radius (nm) 0.76 1.38 Stokes radius in water (nm) 2.38 1.25 Stokes radius in PC (nm) 4.8 3.6 Ionic conductivity in PC (S cm2 mol−1) 8.3 15.2 Desolvation energy in PC (kJ mol−1) 215.8 119.2 
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2. Recent progress on electrochemical properties of carbon-based electrodes for flexible PIBs. (Continued).
Materials Electrolytes Voltage range Cycling Rate Sb-graphene-CNFs[87] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 204.95 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/100 cycles 120. 83 mA h g−1/1.0 A g−1 N-doped CoSb@C nanofibers[88] 0.8 M KFSI EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.1-3.0 V 449 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/160 cycles
250 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/500 cycles160 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Multi-channel hollow CNT/CNF[72] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 315.9 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/300 cycles
100.1 mA h g−1, 5.0 A g−1/5000 cycles108.7 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 Graphene/
porous nitrogen-doped CNFs[73]3.0 M KFSI EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 358 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/200 cycles
276 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/2000 cycles101 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 Na2Ti3O7/N-doped carbon sponge[89] 1.0 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-2.6 V 88.9 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/1555 cycles 25 mA h g−1/1.0 A g−1 CNT-modified graphitic carbon foam[90] 0.7 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-2.5 V 226 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/800 cycles
127 mA h g−1, 0.5 A g−1/2000 cycles56 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 N, P-doped graphene/carbon cloth[13] 1.0 M KPF6 EC/DMC (1∶1)
with 5 vol% FEC0.01-3.0 V 281.1 mA h g−1, 0.25 A g−1/1000 cycles
180 mA h g−1, 0.5 A g−1/1000 cycles
142.4 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/1000 cycles156.1 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 CoSe2/N-doped carbon foam[45] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-2.6 V 335 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/200 cycles
198 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/1000 cycles226 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 SnO2@Carbon foam[38] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 398.8 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/150 cycles
231.7 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/400 cycles143.5 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 MoS2/N-doped carbon sponge[40] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-2.6 V 374 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/200 cycles
212 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/1000 cycles225 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 N, O dual-doped carbon@graphene foam[69] 0.7 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 319 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/550 cycles
281 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/5500 cycles123 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 Graphite nanoflake/MXene[91] 1.0 M KFSI PC/EC (1∶1) 0.01-2.5 V 253.8 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/100 cycles 45.2 mA h g−1/0.5 A g−1 N-rich carbon membranes[92] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 146 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/500 cycles 104 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 N-doping hollow neuronal carbon skeleton[93] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 198 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/200 cycles
134 mA h g−1, 0.5 A g−1/500 cycles110 mA h g−1/1.0 A g−1 FeP coated in N/P co-doped carbon shell nanorods[94] 2.0 M KFSI PC/EC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 1330.5 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/35 cycles
625.3 mA h g−1, 0.3 A g−1/100 cycles
388.8 mA h g−1, 0.5 A g−1/400 cycles346.9 mA h g−1/1.5 A g−1 S-/O-doped graphitic carbon network[95] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 298.3 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/300 cycles
125.9 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/5000 cycles
91.1 mA h g−1, 5.0 A g−1/10000 cycles149.7 mA h g−1/5 A g−1 Cathodes K0.5V2O5/CNTs[61] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 1.53.8 V 90 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/100 cycles
51 mA h g−1, 0.5 A g−1/300 cycles62 mA h g−1/0.5 A g−1 Note: M: mol L−1
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Table 2. Recent progress on electrochemical properties of carbon-based electrodes for flexible PIBs.
Materials Electrolytes Voltage range Cycling Rate Anodes N, O-rich CNFs[74] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.005-3.0 V 170 mA h g−1, 1C/1900 cycles 110 mA h g−1/10C Porous CNFs[49] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0-3.0 V 270 mA h g−1, 0.02 A g−1/80 cycles
211 mA h g−1, 0.2 A g−1/1200 cycles100 mA h g−1/7.7 A g−1 Hierarchically porous N-doped CNFs[75] 1.0 M KPF6 EC/DMC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 194 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/110 cycles
154 mA h g−1, 0.2 A g−1/90 cycles
135 mA h g−1, 0.5 A g−1/200 cycleMultichannel CNFs[50] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 110.9 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/2000 cycles 143.2 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Necklace-like N-doped hollow
carbon with hierarchical pores[51]0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-2.5 V 225.4 mA h g−1, 0.2 A g−1/1000 cycles
161.3 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/1600 cycles204.8 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Hierarchical porous CNFs[76] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-2.5 V 238.6 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/200 cycles
196.7 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/2000 cycles204.6 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Ultrafine Sb nanocrystals/nanochannel-
containing CNFs[56]3.0 M KFSI DME 0.01-3.0 V 393 mA h g−1, 0.2 A g−1/100 cycles
225 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/2000 cycles145 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 Sb nanoparticles/carbon porous nanofibers[77] 1.0 M KFSI EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 421.4 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/100 cycles
264.0 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/500 cycles112.5 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 ReS2/N-doped CNFs[78] 0.8 M KTFSI DME 0.01-3.0 V 253 mA h g−1, 0.2 A g−1/100 cycles Dual anionic vacancie-rich MoSSe/CNFs[37] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 220.5, 0.5 A g−1/1000 cycles 202.6 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 Co0.85Se@C/CNFs[39] 2.0 M KFSI DME 0.01-2.6 V 353 mA h g−1, 0.2 A g−1/100 cycles
299 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/400 cycles166 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 N-rich Cu2Se/C nanowires[79] 1.0 M KFSI PC/EC (1∶1) 0.1-2.5 V 190 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/200 cycles
78 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/1200 cycles104 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 SnS2@CNFs[26] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 342.8 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/200 cycles
183.1 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/1000 cycles264.3 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 V2O3@ porous N-doped CNFs[57] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 230 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/500 cycles z34 mA h g−1/1.0 A g−1 MoP ultrafine nanoparticles/
N, P codoped CNFs[59]0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 230 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/200 cycles 223 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Fe2P nanoparticles-doped carbon nanofibers[80] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-2.5 V 379.2 mA h g−1, 0.2 A g−1/100 cycles
179.6 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/2000 cycles211.8 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Coal liquefaction residue/CNFs[81] 0.5 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 98% capacity retention, 0.05 A g−1/320 cycles 103 mA h g−1/1.0 A g−1 Mn0.5Ti2(PO4)3/CNFs[58] 1.0 M KFSI EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 196.6 mA h g−1, 0.02 A g−1/100 cycles
53.2 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/2000 cycles87.5 mA h g−1/1.0 A g−1 V2O3/CNFs[82] 3.0 M KFSI EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 380 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/500 cycles
98% capacity retention, 1.0 A g−1/2500 cycles175 mA h g−1/10.0 A g−1 CoSe2/N-doped CNT
framework[43]0.8 M KPF6 in EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-2.5 V 253 mA h g−1, 0.2 A g−1/100 cycles
173 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/600 cycles196 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Potassium titanate/rGO[35] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.05-2.5 V 75 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/700 cycles 84 mA h g−1/1.0 A g−1 Sulfur-mediated 3D
graphene aerogel[83]0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 320 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/500 cycles
173 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/800 cycles178 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 Carbon dots@rGO[84] 0.8 M KPF6 in EC/DMC (1∶1)
with 5% FEC0.01-3.0 V 244 mA h g−1, 0.2 A g−1/840 cycles 221 mA h g−1/0.5 A g−1 3D graphene skeleton/FeP[67] 1.0 M KPF6 in EC/DMC (1∶1) 0.01-3.0 V 327 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/300 cycles
127 mA h g−1, 2.0 A g−1/2000 cycles101 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 Bi nanosheet/rGO[68] 1.0 M KPF6 DME 0.1-1.5 V 272 mA h g−1, 0.5 A g−1/90 cycles 100 mA h g−1/10.0 A g−1 Sb2Se3@holey rGO[85] 0.8 M KFSI EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.1-2.2 V 382.8 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/500 cycles 73 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Sub-micro carbon fiber@CNTs[86] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.01-2.0 V 193 mA h g−1, 1C/300 cycles 108 mA h g−1/5C rGO/CNT[23] 0.8 M KPF6 EC/DMC (1∶1) 0.05-2.5 V 223 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/200 cycles 110 mA h g−1/0.1 A g−1 Note: M: mol L−1
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Table 3. Recent progress on electrochemical performance of carbon-based electrodes for flexible PIHCs.
Materials Electrolytes Electrochemical performance Half cell Full cell Voltage range Cycling Rate Coupling electrode/
Device typeVoltage
rangeCycling Rate Anodes NbSe2/N, Se co-
doped CNFs[99]5.0 M KFSI EC/
DMC (1∶1)0.01-3.0 V 288 mA h g−1,
0.05 A g−1
51 mA h g−1,
0.2 A g−178 mA h g−1,
2.0 A g−1Activated carbon/
Coin cell20 W h kg−1, 2.0 A g−1/
10000 cycles4000 W h kg−1,
4.0 A g−1Hierarchical
porous CNFs[97]1.0 M KFSI
DGM0.01-3.0 V 305 mA h g−1,
0.2 A g−1/
300 cycles194 mA h g−1,
10.0 A g−1Activated hierarchical
porous CNFs/Coin cell82.3% capacity
retention, 1.0 A g−1/
8000 cycles191 W h kg−1,
100 W kg−1Hollow MoS2
Spheres/CNFs[100]1.0 M KFSI EC/
DMC (1∶1)0.01-3.0 V 366.1 mA h g−1,
0.1 A g−1/
100 cycles
187.7 mA h g−1,
2.0 A g−1/
5000 cycles184.7 mA h g−1,
10.0 A g−1Activated carbon
fiber membrane/
Coin cell0.01-4.0 V 81.8% capacity
retention, 4.0 A g−1/
10000 cycles51 W h kg−1,
8348 W kg−1B, F co-doped
CNFs[101]1.0 M KFSI EC/
DEC (1∶1)0-3.0 V 259 mA h g−1,
0.1 A g−1/
120 cycles
176 mA h g−1,
1.0 A g−1/
6000 cycles150 mA h g−1,
5.0 A g−1Activated carbon/
Coin cell0.01-4.0 V 78% capacity
retention, 1.0 A g−1/
4000 cycles23 W h kg−1,
14710 W kg−1α-NiS nanocrystallite/
CNTs[98]1.0 M KPF6 EC/
DEC (1∶1)Central hollow
carbon fiber/Coin cell85.6% capacity
retention, 2.0 A g−1/
3500 cycles127 W h kg−1,
8400 W kg−1S, N-co-doped
kinked CNFs[102]3.0 M KFSI
DME0.01-3.0 V 330 mA h g−1,
1.0 A g−1/
2000 cycles270 mA h g−1,
2.0 A g−1Activated carbon/
Pouch cell0.1-4.0 V 88% capacity
retention, 10.0 A g−1/
4000 cycles77 mA h g−1,
5.0 A g−1Porous carbon
tubes[103]1.0 M KPF6 EC/
DEC (1∶1)0.01-3.0 V 300 mA h g−1,
0.05 A g−1/
100 cycles
239.6 mA h g−1,
0.2 A g−1/
500 cycles
170.6 mA h g−1,
1.0 A g−1/
1200 cycles137.8 mA h g−1,
2.0 A g−1Porous carbon tubes/
Coin cell0.01-4.0 V 37 mA h g−1 (51 W h kg−1),
1.0 A g−1/1500 cycles36.8 mA h g−1,
3.0 A g−11D K2Ti6O13/
3D porous
carbon framework[104]0.8 M KPF6 EC/
DEC (1∶1)60% capacity
retention,
1.0 A g−1/
1000 cycles45 mA h g−1,
2.0 A g−1Activated carbon/
Coin cell0.1-3.5 V 60% capacity
retention, 1.0 A g−1/
1000 cyclesActivated carbon-
MXene-CNF/
Fiber-shaped cell0.1-3.5 V 64.3% capacity
retention, 0.1 A cm−3/
2000 cycles12.1 μW h cm−3,
2.0 A g−1
1.9 mW h cm−3,
2.0 A g−1Tissue-derived
carbon microbelt
paper[15]0.8 M KPF6 EC/
DEC (1∶1)0.01-3.0 V 246 mA h g−1,
0.1 A g−1/
400 cycles
174 mA h g−1,
1.0 A g−1/
750 cycles112 mA h g−1,
2.0 A g−1Activated carbon/
Pouch cell2.5-4.5 V 90% capacitance
retention,
20 mV s−1/
1000 cycles112 W h kg−1,
17500 W kg−1Aligned hybrid
fibers filled
with FeSe2, C[105]Hierarchical fibers/
Coin cell66 W h kg−1,
20000 W kg−1Bead-like
coal-derived
carbon[106]1.0 M KPF6 in EC/
DMC/EMC (1∶1∶1)0.01-3.0 V 204.9 mA h g−1,
0.2 A g−1/
100 cycles
131.4 mA h g−1,
1.0 A g−1/
2000 cycles104.5 mA h g−1,
5.0 A g−1Activated carbon/
Coin cell0.5-4.0 V 52 W h kg−1, 5 A g−1/
1000 cycles52 W h kg−1,
2187 W kg−1Note: M: mol L−1
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Table 4. Recent progress on electrochemical properties of carbon-based electrodes for flexible K-S/Se batteries.
Materials Electrolytes Voltage range Cycling performance Rate capability Device type Activated carbon fiber @S[48] 3.0 M KFSI DME 1.2-3.0 V 157 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/250 cycles Coin cell CNT/S[112] 3.0 M KFSI DME 1.2-3.0 V 135 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/200 cycles 94 mA h g−1/0.5 A g−1 Coin cell Se@N, O dual-doped porous
carbon nanosheet-CNT[109]0.7 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.5-3.0 V 544 mA h g−1, 0.1 A g−1/
150 cycles335 mA h g−1, 0.8 A g−1/
700 cycles273 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 Coin cell Small-molecule Se@peapod-
like N-doped CNFs[113]0.7 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.5-3.0 V 635 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/
50 cycles367 mA h g−1, 0.5 A g−1/
1670 cycles209 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Coin cell CNTs/CMK-3/Se[114] 5.0 M KTFSI DEGDME 1.2-3.0 V 209 mA h g−1, 0.1 C/
160 cycles252 mA h g−1, 0.5 C/
350 cyclesCoin cell Se2–3/Se4–7@N/O co-doped CNFs[111] 0.7 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.5-3.0 V 550 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/
50 cycles393 mA h g−1, 1.0 A g−1/
2000 cycles256 mA h g−1/5.0 A g−1 Coin cell SeS2@nitrogen-doped CNFs[115] 0.7 M KPF6 EC/DEC (1∶1) 0.5-2.8 V 703 mA h g−1, 0.05 A g−1/
150 cycles417 mA h g−1, 0.5 A g−1/
1000 cycles372 mA h g−1/2.0 A g−1 Coin cell Note: M: mol L−1
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Abbreviation Full name SEM Scanning electron microscopy TEM Transmission electron microscopy EC Ethylene carbonate DEC Diethyl carbonate DME Dimethoxyethane DMC Dimethyl carbonate DEGDME Diethylene glycol dimethyl ether DGM Diglyme TEP Triethyl phosphate KPF6 Potassium hexafluorophosphate KFSI Potassium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide KTFSI Potassium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide LED Light-emitting diode
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