A review of carbon-based catalysts and catalyst supports for simultaneous organic electro-oxidation and hydrogen evolution reactions
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摘要: 利用可再生能源（太阳能、风能）发电进行电解水制氢是获取“绿氢”的必经之路。然而，目前电解水制氢仍面临电解效率低和能耗高的巨大挑战。通过将电解水体系与热力学上更有利的有机氧化反应耦合是解决上述问题的重要途径，在有效提升阴极产氢效率的同时还可以在阳极获得高附加值化学品（用于进一步分摊并降低制氢成本）。这一新兴领域的发展关键在于制备具有高选择性和高稳定性的催化材料。碳基材料具有来源丰富、比表面积高、孔隙率高等优点，在高性能有机电氧化和电解水析氢催化剂方面引起了科研人员的广泛关注。本研究总结了碳基材料在电解水制氢耦合有机氧化方面的最新研究进展，并讨论了该材料在这一新兴电催化领域的发展前景和面临挑战，以推进新型炭材料的发展。Abstract: Producing organic electro-oxidation and hydrogen evolution reactions (HER) simultaneously in an electrolytic cell is an appealing method for generating valuable chemicals at the anode while also producing H2 at the cathode. Within this framework, the task of designing energy-saving electrocatalysts with high selectivity and stability is a considerable challenge. Carbon-based catalysts, along with their supports, have emerged as promising candidates due to their diverse sources, large specific surface area, high porosity and multidimensional characteristics. This review summarizes progress from 2012 to 2022, in the use of carbon-based catalysts and their supports for organic electrooxidation and HER. It delves into outer-sphere electrooxidation mechanisms involving molecule-mediated oxidation and oxidative radical coupling reactions, as well as inner-sphere electrooxidation mechanisms, encompassing both acidic and alkaline electrolytes. The review also explores prospective research directions within this domain, addressing various aspects such as the design of electrocatalytic materials, the study of the relationship between the structure and properties of electrocatalysts, as well as examining their potential industrial applications.
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Figure 1. (a) Diagrammatic representation of electrolytic H2 production. (b) Scheme forelectrolytic H2 production coupled with organic electrooxidation and (c) Comparison of the HER, ethanol electrooxidation reaction (EOR) and OER
Figure 2. (a) Scheme for the outer and inner sphere reactions and (b) reaction mechanism for the oxidation of ethanol to the acetate ion on the surface of a gold film working electrode (WE) in an alkaline solution. Used with authorization from Ref [39]. Copyright by 2019 American Chemical Society
Figure 3. (a) Scheme for TEMPO-mediated HMF electrooxidation. (b) Formation of 4-ethylnonane, a valuable liquid fuel, from the electrooxidation of 2-methylfuran (2-MF). Reproduced with permission from Ref [48]. Copyright from 2019 American Chemical Society
Figure 4. (a) Proposed reaction pathways for glycerol electrooxidation (GOR). (b) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the Ni-Mo-N. (c) Diagrammatic representation of the concurrent electrolytic H2 and formate production from glycerol aqueous solution and (d) LSV curves of Ni-Mo-N/CFC in 1.0 mol L−1 KOH with or without 0.1 mol L−1 glycerol. Reproduced with permission from Ref [64]
Figure 5. (a) Two possible HMF oxidation pathways. (b) Diagram depicting the synthesis of the Ni3N@C electrocatalyst. (c) SEM image of Ni3N@C. (d) LSV curves of Ni3N@C in 1.0 mol L−1 KOH with or without 10 mmol L−1 HMF and (e) FDCA yield (%) in 6 successive electrolysis cycles with Ni3N@C. Reproduced with permission from Ref [72]. Copyright from 2019 Angewandte Chemie International Edition
Figure 6. (a) Diagrammatic representation of the synthesis of NPS-PC for bi-functional ORR and HER. (b) SEM image of NPS-PC and LSV curves in (c) 0.5 mol L−1 H2SO4 and (d) 1 mol L−1 KOH. Reproduced with permission from Ref [76]. Copyright from 2020 Elsevier
Figure 7. (a) Ni-zeolitic imidazolate framework/N-doped porous carbon (Ni-ZIF/NC) electrocatalyst for HER. (b) SEM image of Ni-ZIF/NC. (c) Raman spectra of different catalysts and (d) Defect design in M–ZIF/NC to enhance HER. Reproduced with permission from Ref [87]. Copyright from 2021 Elsevier
Table 1. Summary of reported electrocatalysts containing carbon substrates for organic oxidation reactions
Sample Reactant Electrolyte η (vs. RHE)/V for J = 10 mA cm−2 FE/% Stability/h Ref. Pt-Co3O4/CP Methanol 1.0 M NaOH + 3.5% NaCl + 2 M methanol 0.56 >80 20 [53] Co3O4/CP Ethanol 2 M KOH + 2 M ethanol 1.45 98 [58] Ni-Mo-N/CFC Glycerol 1 M KOH + 0.1 M glycerol 1.36 ~100 10 [64] MnO2/CP Glycerol 0.005 M H2SO4 + 0.2 M glycerol 1.36 ~60 850 [65] NC@CuCo2Nx/CF Benzyl alcohol 1 M KOH + 15 mM benzyl alcohol 1.55 95 60 [66] Ni3N@C HMF 1.0 M KOH + 10 mM HMF 1.55 ~100 [72] Note: M—mol L−1, CP—carbon papers, NC—N-doped carbon, CF—carbon fibric 
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Table 2. Summary of carbon-based HER catalysts
Sample Electrolyte η (vs. RHE)/mV for J = 10 mA cm−2 Tafel slopse/(mV dec−1) Stability/h Ref. CNFs 0.5 M H2SO4 442 [74] NPS-PC 0.5 M H2SO4, 1 M KOH 260, 250 86, 113 10 [76] g-C3N4@NG 0.5 M H2SO4 240 52 [77] g-C3N4@G MMs 0.5 M H2SO4 219 [78] g-C3N4 QDs 0.5 M H2SO4 208 52 1 [79] N-doped Fru/Gu-HTC-1000 1 M KOH 350 108 [80] Pt/NPC 0.5 M H2SO4 22 [82] FeCo@NCNTs 0.1 M H2SO4 240 72 [83] FeS2@RGO 0.5 M H2SO4 139 66 >10 [84] Ni-ZIF/NC 1 M KOH, 0.5 M H2SO4 163, 177 85, 84 >50 [87] D-TiO2/Co@NCT 0.5 M H2SO4 167 74 10 [90] Note: M—mol/L
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