Photodetectors based on graphene/molybdenum dichalcogenide van der Waals heterostructure: A review
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Abstract: Graphene is widely used in photodetection owing to its high carrier mobility and wide spectral absorption range. However, the high dark current due to its low light absorption severely limits the performance of photodetection. Molybdenum dihalide (MoX2, X= S, Se and Te) has a high absorption coefficient, which can compensate high dark current in graphene-based photodetectors and result in outstanding photoelectronic properties of photodetectors based on graphene/MoX2 van der Waals heterostructure (vdWH). In this review, we firstly review working principles, performance indicators, and structures of photodetectors. After that, the significance of graphene/MoX2 vdWH photodetectors are highlighted from a material fundamental perspective. Preparation methodologies and performance enhancement strategies of graphene/MoX2 vdWH photodetectors are summarized. In the end, we discuss the current challenges and future directions of the graphene/MoX2 vdWH photodetectors. This review will guide the design of high-performance vdWH photodetectors.
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Key words:
- Graphene /
- Molybdenum dihalide /
- Heterostructure /
- Photodetector /
- 2-dimensional carbon materials
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Figure 1. Classification and applications of photodetectors[2,4,8-10,13,20,21,27,28]. Copyright, 2018, American Chemical Society[8]. Copyright, 2018, Springer Nature[9].Copyright, 2020, The American Cheramic Society[13]. Copyright, 2020, CellPress[2]. Copyright,2024, Elsevier[22]. Copyright, 2024, Elsevier[11]. Copyright, 2008, Elsevier[4]. Copyright, 2008, American Institute of Physics[20]
Figure 2. Detectivity (D*) of graphene-based 2D photodetectors after van der Waals heterostructures (vdWHs) are formed with different photosensitive materials, including Graphene/ReS2[45], graphene/SnS2[46], Graphene/PtSe2[47], Graphene/PtSe2/β-Ga2O3[48], Graphene/PbSe[49], Graphene/GaSe [51], Graphene/InSe[52], Graphene/PbSe/TiO2[50], Graphene/SnSe2/Graphene[53], Graphene/p-GaSe/n-InSe[54], Graphene/WSe2[55], Graphene/Bi2Te3[56], Graphene/HgTe/ Graphene[57], Graphene/MoS2[58-60], Graphene/h-BN/MoS2[65], Graphene/MoS2/Graphene[64], MoS2/Graphene/MoS2[61,62], MoS2/h-BN/Graphene[66], Graphene/glassy-MoS2[63], Graphene/InSe/MoS2[67], MoS2/Graphene/WSe2[68], Graphene/MoTe2[69], Graphene/MoTe2/Graphene[70], MoTe2 /Graphene/SnS2[71]
Figure 3. Schematic band diagram of (a) photoconductive effect, (b) photovoltaic effect and (c) photothermoelectric effect at the graphene/Molybdenum dihalide (MoX2, X= S, Se and Te) interface. Upper and lower diagram represent the interface in the dark state and under the light, respectively
Figure 4. Schematic structures of (a) a lateral and (b) vertical graphene/molybdenum dihalide (MoX2, X= S, Se and Te) van der Waals heterostructure photodetectors
Figure 5. (a) Graphene hexagonal honeycomb crystal structure. (b) 3D representation of the structure of molybdenum dihalide (MoX2, X= S, Se and Te). (c) Crystal structures of MoX2: including 2H and 1 T polytype. (d) Crystal structure of graphene/MoX2 van der Waals heterostructure (vdWH). Copyright, 2015, Elsevier[106]. (e) Electron band structures of graphene, (f) MoS2 and (g) graphene/MoS2 vdWH at the equilibrium interfacial distance. The Fermi level (EF) is set to zero and marked by green dotted lines. Black and color lines respectively for generalized gradient approximation of Per dew, Burke, and Engenho and HSE06 methods. Copyright, 2016, Royal Society of Chemistry[105]
Figure 6. Preparation methods of graphene/molybdenum dihalide (MoX2, X= S, Se and Te) van der Waals heterostructures
Figure 7. (a) Transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of the transferred graphene/MoS2 van der Waals heterostructure (vdWH. Copyright, 2017, American Chemical Society)[125]. (b) Schematic of the fabrication process of the transfer-free graphene/MoS2 vdWH. (c) Atomic force microscope (AFM) image of the transfer-free graphene/MoS2 vdWH. Copyright, 2017, American Chemical Society[125]. (d) Schematic diagram of the transfer-free graphene/MoS2 interface band. Copyright, 2017, American Chemical Society[125]. (e) Comparison of time-dependent photocurrent of the transfer-free graphene/MoS2 and transferred graphene/MoS2. Copyright, 2017, American Chemical Society[125]. (f) Comparison of responsivity (R) of the transfer-free graphene/MoS2 and trans-free MoS2/graphene/SiC. Copyright, 2017, American Chemical Society[125]
Figure 8. (a) Schematic band diagram of graphene/MoS2. (b) Schematic of the graphene/MoS2/h-BN van der Waals heterostructure (vdWH) device. Copyright, 2018, Elsevier[65]. (c) Comparison of the photoluminescence (PL) intensities of pristine MoS2, graphene/MoS2 and graphene/MoS2/h-BN. Copyright, 2018, Elsevier[65]. (d) Comparison of current- bias voltage (I-VDS) curves of the graphene/MoS2 and graphene/MoS2/h-BN vdWH photodetectors in dark and light illuminated. (e) Responsivity (R) of photodetector versus VDS. Copyright, 2018, Elsevier[65]. (f) Noise equivalent power (NEP) and detectivity (D*) of the graphene/MoS2 photodetector versus VDS
Figure 9. (a) Energy diagram of the graphene/molybdenum dihalide (MoX2, X= S, Se and Te) hybrid photodetector with asymmetry metal contact under light irradiation.
$ \Delta \varphi $ Pd and$ \Delta \varphi $ Ti represent the difference between the Dirac point energy and the Fermi level (EF) in palladium- and titanium-doped graphene, respectively. Copyright, 2020, American Chemical Society[86]. (b) Difference of current (I) between Dirac point energy and EF in graphene under symmetric metal contact. (c) Difference of I between Dirac point energy and EF in graphene under asymmetry metal contact. (d) Curve of photocurrent and responsivity (R) with gate voltage under asymmetric metal contact. (e) Photocurrent response of graphene/MoS2 phototransistor with asymmetric metal contact. Copyright, 2020, American Chemical Society[86]. (f) Corresponding enlarged figures of (e). Copyright, 2020, American Chemical Society[86]
Figure 10. (a) Schematic image of the MoS2 photodetector with graphene gate electrode. Copyright, 2020, American Chemical Society[59]. (b) Band diagram of vertical direction of the device (gate bias (Vgs) << threshold voltage (Vth)). (c) Fowler-Nordheim tunneling (FNT) plots at different incident powers. (d) Band diagram of vertical direction of the device (Vgs >> Vth). (e) Responsivity (R) depending on effective incident power at different Vgs. Copyright, 2020, American Chemical Society[59]. (f) Detectivity (D*) depending on effective incident power at different Vgs. Copyright, 2020, American Chemical Society[59]
Table 1. Performance of graphene/photosensitive material-based photodetectors
Device structure λ/nm R/(mA·W−1) τr/ms τf/ms D*/Jones Ref. Graphene/ReS2 550 1.0×108 30.0 30.0 1.9×1013 [45] Graphene/SnS2 470
10647.7×105
2.0×103− − 8.9×1013
1.8×1010[46] Graphene/PtSe2 1000 2.2×102 50.5 37.3 1.0×107 [47] Graphene/PtSe2/β-Ga2O3 245 76.2 1.2×10−3 0.5 1.0×1013 [48] Graphene/PbSe 1300 6.6×106 50.0 175.0 1.2×1012 [49] Graphene/GaSe 532 3.5×108 10.0 10.0 1.1×1010 [51] Graphene/InSe 633 1.0×108 <0.1 <0.1 1.0×1013 [52] Graphene/PbSe/TiO2 350 5.1×102 − − 3.0×1013 [50] Graphene/SnSe2/
Graphene532 1.3×106 30.2 27.2 1.2×1012 [53] Graphene/p-GaSe/
n-InSe410 2.1×102 0.6×10−2 5.7×10−3 2.2×1012 [54] Graphene/WSe2 532 3.5×105 5×10−5 3.0×10−2 1.0×1013 [55] Graphene/Bi2Te3 940 1.0×109 − − 1.0×1011 [56] Graphene/HgTe/ Graphene 1550 7.0 9.0×10−3 0.7×10−3 1.0×109 [57] Graphene/MoS2 220 3.3×106 − − 1.0×1012 [58] Graphene/MoS2 432 2.2×108 − − 3.5×1013 [59] Graphene/MoS2 520 2.1×106 − − 1.5×1010 [60] Graphene/h-BN/MoS2 532 3.6×102 − − 5.9×1014 [65] Graphene/MoS2/
Graphene532
20004.1×105
3.8×105589.6 − 3.2×1010
2.9×1010[64] MoS2/Graphene/ MoS2 1000
532− − − 1.0×109
1.0×1012[61] MoS2/Graphene/
MoS21550
13101.1×102
11.82.8×10−3 4.7×10−2 1.8×1012
2.0×1012[62] MoS2/h-BN /Graphene 405
12651.8×105
1.5×102230.0 2.5×10−2 2.6×1013 [66] Graphene/glassy-MoS2 532 12.3 − − 1.8×1010 [63] Graphene/InSe/MoS2 532 1.1×102 − − 1.1×1010 [67] MoS2/Graphene/
WSe2532 4.3×106 5.4×10−2 3.0×10−2 2.2×1012 [68] Graphene/MoTe2 1064
8089.7×105
2.2×10478.0 3.7×102 1.6×1011
3.8×1015[69] Graphene/MoTe2/
Graphene473 8.7×104 23.0 1.0×1012 [70] MoTe2 /Graphene/SnS2 500 2.6×106 17.6 72.3 1.0×1013 [71] 
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Table 2. Synthesis and performance of typical graphene/molybdenum dihalide (MoX2, X = S, Se and Te) van der Waals heterostructure (vdWH) photodetectors
Device structure Synthesis of graphene/MoX2 λ/nm R/(mA·W−1) D*/Jones τr /ms τf /ms EQE Ref. h-BN/MoTe2/Graphene /SnS2/h-BN Dry transfer 500 2.6×106 1.0×1013 17.6 72.3 106 to 105 [71] MoS2/h-BN /Graphene Dry transfer 405 1.8×105 2.6×1013 230 250.0 − [66] Graphene/InSe/MoS2 Dry transfer 532 110 1.1×1010 − − 25.7% [67] MoS2/Graphene/MoS2 Dry transfer 1000
532− 1.0×109
1.0×1012− − 55% [61] Graphene/MoTe2/Graphene Dry transfer 473 8.7×104 1.0×1012 − 23.0 − [70] Graphene/MoTe2 Wet transfer 1064 9.7×105 1.6×1011 78 375.0 − [53] MoS2/Graphene/MoS2 Wet transfer 808
1550
13102.2×104
10.6
11.83.8×1015
1.8×1012
2.0×10122.8×10−3 4.7×10−2 − [62] MoS2/Graphene/WSe2 Wet transfer 532 4.3×106 2.2×1012 5.3×10−2 3.0×10−2 1×106% [68] Graphene/MoTe2 Wet transfer 1265
1300
13301.5×102
50
20− 19 − 20% [122] Graphene/MoTe2/Graphene Wet transfer 1064
473110
205− 2.4×10−2 4.6×10−2 12.9%
53.8%[123] Graphene/MoS2/WS2 Wet transfer 400
15506.6×1010
1.7×104− 21.9 7.0 13.7% [124] Graphene/MoS2/Graphene Wet transfer 532
20004.1×105
3.8×1053.2×1010
2.9×1010589.6 − 9.7×104%
2.3×104%[64] Graphene/MoS2 Wet transfer 220 3.4×106 1.0×1012 − − 1.8×104 [58] Graphene/MoS2 Wet transfer 520 2.1×106 1.5×1010 − − − [60] Graphene/h-BN/MoS2 Wet transfer 532 3.6×102 5.9×1014 − − 80% [65] Graphene/glassy-MoS2 Wet transfer 532 12.3 1.8×1010 − − − [63] Graphene/MoS2 Inkjet printing 540 8.4×105 − 20 30 − [125] Graphene/MoS2 Successive deposition 532 2.4×103 − − − − [111] Graphene/MoS2 Successive deposition 432 2.2×108 3.5×1013 − − − [59]
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